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   925. In the Holy Land, barley was mainly used to feed animals because its protein content was less than wheat. It was also the chief grain of the poor people and so it became a symbol of poverty. Barley was such a staple grain of the Hebrews that it furnished them with units of measurement-three barley grains laid end to end were equal to an inch, about twenty-four to a "span," and forty-eight to a "cubit" (about seventeen inches).

   926. The tall papyrus reed or bulrush was one of the most abundant plants to grow along the banks of the Nile. At the top of its fifteen-foot stem is a plume of wispy stalks that resemble feathers. Papyrus furnished the world's first material for making paper. In fact our word paper is derived from it. The stem was pressed flat under heavy weights until it dried. It was then cut into sheets of suitable size, which were polished with ivory to make a smooth writing surface. Sometimes sheets were glued or sewn together to make long rolls of paper, usually about thirty feet long. One roll has been discovered that is 130 feet in length! Each end of the roll was attached to a handle to make winding easier.

   927. In Jesus' parable of the prodigal son, the younger of two sons squandered his half of the inheritance. He then became so poor that he would fill his belly with the husks that the swine ate (Luke 15:16). Husks came from the pods of the carob tree, also commonly called the locust, which were fed to farm animals.

   928. The carob tree grows beans in a pod that resemble our green peas. Today in the Near East the pods provide fodder for animals and food for very poor people, although in Jesus' time humans did not eat them unless they were famished as the prodigal son.

   929. Some think that the "locust" (Matt 3:4) John the Baptist ate in the wilderness was not the insect but rather the pod from the carob tree. For this reason the carob is sometimes called "Saint John's bread tree."

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   920. Wormwood is used to symbolize bitterness because it has a unique bitterness taste. The plant has many species that grow in Palestine. It is almost more of a shrub, though it can grow quite tall. It is in the same plant family as mugwart and western sagebrush. These plants all have a bitter taste and strong odor. The Hebrews thought of bitter things as poisonous and thus symbols of calamity and sorrow, but they used wormwood as a seasoning, a tonic, and a worm medicine.

   921. Balm of Gilead refers to a fragrant resin that is obtained from cuts in the bark of trees. It is used for both perfumes and medicines. Several different plants produce such resins, and no one is sure which one Jeremiah meant. It might have been the Jericho balsam, but a more likely possibility is liquidambar, which produces the gum known as storax or stacte, which is still used in medicine. It is almost identical to the tree Americans call red gum or sweet gum.

   922. Compared to the desert, Canaan must have seemed like paradise, with its vineyards and its orchards of olives, figs, dates, and pomegranates. Next to the grape, the fig was the Israelites' most valued crop. It provided a large part of their daily food. Both figs and dates were eaten either fresh or dried. Fig fruits were also used medicinally;  and the sheaths of date clusters provided a sap that was used to make a kind of wine as well as a syrup called "honey" in the Bible.

   923. Pomegranates grow wild as large shrubs or small trees in many parts of the Near East. So important was this "apple with grains," filled with many red-colored, juicy seeds, to the Israelites that it was used as a design to decorate the Temple and also coins in Jerusalem.

   924. Along the Nile and throughout the ancient Near East, the most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Both grains have been cultivated in Egypt and the Near East since the earliest recorded times. The earliest evidence comes from near Mount Carmel, on the coast of northern Israel. It dates from about nine thousand years ago.

  

  

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   915. Hyssop is mentioned in the Bible on many occasions, but no plant we know of today by that name is a native species of the Middle East. It is thought that the plant referred to might be the herb marjoram, which is fragrant and comes from Syria.

   916. The lily, though mentioned often in the Bible, is most likely not the common flower that goes by that name.

   917. Mandrakes are a flowering herb that bears fruit in the spring. They are said to have powers and can serve as an aphrodisiac, which we know from Leah and Rachel's quarrel over their husband, Jacob, visiting their separate tents whether it was worth sharing some mandrakes in order to promote conception.

   918. Myrtle has beautiful pink blossoms with a delicate fragrance; the leaves are also quite fragrant. The myrtle was used by Isaiah as a symbol of God's continuous care and provision of Israel (Isa. 41:19-20). The branches were used for festivals as well (Neh. 8:15-16).

   919. Roses are not native to the Bible lands, and so it is unlikely that the blooms we know as roses actually grew there. More likely other flowers were being referred to. Roses are mentioned several times in the apocryphal books and once in Song of Solomon.

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   910. Sycamore trees vary from continent to continent. Those talked about in the Bible (Egypt and Palestine) are sturdy evergreen trees that bear figs. The Egyptians cultivated it for lumber as well as fruit, but in Israel it was mainly grown for the fruit. The sycamore tree is perhaps best remembered for its helping Zaccheus, a short man, see Jesus as He passed by.

   911. Willow trees generally grow near streams in the Middle East. Most Bible references to the trees associate them with water as a result-"the willow of the brook" for instance.

   912. The tree of the knowledge of good and evil is perhaps the most notorious tree in history. The only source of temptation for Adam and Eve in the Garden was the tree from which God had told them not to eat.

   913. The castor oil plant grows and withers quickly, especially when handled, and some believe it may be the "gourd" plant Jonah refers to in Jonah 4. The spiky, dark green leaves and reddish, yarnball blooms do not make gourds, however.

   914. The city of Ashkelon was famed in the ancient world for the profusion of fruits and vegetables that grew in its fertile soil. One vegetable was the small onion or scallion, for which the city became noted in Roman times. Our word scallion comes from the Latin caepa Ascalonia, which means "onion of Ashkelon."

  

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   905. Cutting down an olive tree actually rejuvenates it. At the time of cutting, new and more vigorous sprouts grow up out of the roots. The roots are extremely long-lived, and it is almost impossible to kill an olive tree merely by chopping it down. The olive branch is the symbol of peace in the ancient world, and it is fitting that it is associated with Jesus, who is known as the "Prince of Peace."

   906. Solomon built smelters, (construction) a shipyard, and a port at Eziongeber (today known as Elath). His smelters were located in a seemingly unlikely place, an inhospitable desert where water was scarce. There was good reason for building them there, however. The smelters utilized some of the principles of the modern blast furnace. A constant and powerful wind roars down the valley where Solomon's smelters stood, and it acted as bellows that kept the furnace fires burning at high temperatures.

   907. Forest trees served as a symbol of holiness to the Israelites. The names of both the oak and the terebinth, the two most common forest trees of the Holy Land, were derived from Hebrew words meaning "God." David's son Solomon, in the fourth year of his reign, began work on the magnificent Temple at Jerusalem. The walls of the Temple were built of marble, but they were roofed and lined inside with wood from the cedar of Lebanon.

     908. Oak trees were used as burial places (Gen. 35:8; 1 Chron. 10:12). Three species of the oak tree grow in Palestine; it is believed the tabor oak is the one referred to in the Scripture.

   909. Palm trees were especially abundant in the Jordan Valley, and Jericho is known as the "City of Palm Trees." Symbolically the trees were used to depict grace. The date palm also symbolized rejoicing; when Jesus made His triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the crowds waved palm branches to celebrate and honor Him.

  

  

  

  

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   900. Almond trees were admired for their beautiful blossoms by the ancients. The pretty blooms were even used in artwork, such as on the ark (Exod. 25: 33-34). The nuts, and oil taken from the nuts were used for food. Almond blossoms had a special religious significance for the Hebrews, who in ancient times carved them on the golden candlesticks in the tabernacle, and who still carry them to this day to the synagogue for festivals.

   901. Apple trees are only mentioned in two books of the Bible: Proverbs and Song of Solomon. As a result, it is not clear if the "apple" tree was in fact apple-bearing, or if perhaps the "apples" might have been apricots or even figs.

   902. Cedar trees came from Lebanon and were greatly prized for their height, strength, and the durability of the wood. The temples of early Israel utilized the mighty trees for their buildings. Cedar wood is mentioned for use in cleansing rituals, but it is now believed that specific reference was actually to a different type of wood, Phoenician juniper.

   903. Solomon had the tall cedars felled by the thousands to supply timber for the temple and for his fabulous palace, which he named "the House of the Forest of Lebanon." He sent shifts of ten thousand Israelites a month to aid the native workers in cutting down the forests.

   904. Only barren slopes remain where the cedars used to be. Only a few scattered groves survived the axes of empire after empire. One small grove is preserved in a park about eighty miles north of Beirut, Lebanon.
  

  

  

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   894. The Israelites knew about monkeys from their stay in Egypt, because the African baboon was sacred to the god Thoth and was sometimes even kept as a pet. The monkey brought back by Solomon's fleet possibly was the rhesus, the kind most often seen in zoos.

   895. Peacocks were the last of the precious cargo mentioned from Ophir, and although the common peacock is native only to southern India and Ceylon, people have spread it around the world. It is hardy and can endure a wide range of climates and living conditions.

   896. The Israelites were familiar with quail, for wall paintings in Egyptian tombs dating from the time of the Exodus show that people caught the birds in nets for food. However, they had probably never seen so many of them at one time as when God sent them quail in the wilderness (Exod. 16:13).

   897. Migratory quail are short-winged and have only weak powers of flight. They are often blown off course by strong winds and fall exhausted onto the nearest land. God used this very process to cause quail to fall on the Israelite camp. The Bible states that there was a wind that brought the quail from the sea and that the quail fell to earth in the evening.

   898. The rooster was a little different from its wild-pheasant ancestor, the red jungle fowl. It was found from Pakistan to Java until recent decades, when new breeds of chickens were developed. The red jungle fowl closely resembles the barnyard chicken both in appearance and in habits, except that it can fly.

   899. The chicken may have been domesticated as early as fifty-two hundred years ago in India, The birds were raised at that time for the sport of cockfighting, and were not bred for food until several centuries before the time of Jesus.

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   889. The earliest statements about bird migrations came from Jeremiah. No one in the ancient world, however, seemed to know for sure where migrating birds came from, why they left, or where they flew next. "Even the stork in the sky knows her appointed seasons; and the dove, the swift and the thrush observe the time of their migration" (Jer. 8:7). The white stork is unmistakable in flight because of its sharply pointed head and extended neck, long dangling legs, and slowly flapping wings. Flocks of several thousand of them pass over the Holy Land at a time.

   890. Sparrows were eaten as food. They were carefully hunted and sold in the marketplace. Jesus spoke of two sparrows being sold for a farthing.

   891. Jonah was swallowed by "a great fish." There has been considerable dispute, however, about what sea creature is large enough to swallow anything the size of a human. A likely creature that swallowed Jonah is a true fish-the man-eating white shark, often found in the Mediterranean. This shark is extremely large, occasionally up to sixty feet in length, and it is quite capable of swallowing a human. It can also store food in its belly for many days without digesting it.

   892. Snakes, or serpents, are part of the reptile family and receive some mention in the Bible. Satan appeared as a serpent to Eve in the Garden of Eden. Moses held up a brass serpent figure to cure the bites of snakes on the people. Later it became a worshiped object. Interestingly most of the references found in the New Testament are metaphorical rather than literal.

   893. Lizards are the most common reptile in the Bible region. They were an unclean creeping animal as described in Leviticus 11:29-39, and though common, they were not appreciated as a food source.

  

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   884. The red fox, an animal we regard as exceedingly clever, won no praise from Solomon. Every reference to it in the Bible is contemptuous. Because they scavenged like wild dogs and hyenas, in the Israelite cities foxes were killed quickly. They feed on almost anything: rodents, eggs, insects, and grass. They even eat fruit, which may explain Solomon's reference to "the little foxes that ruin the vineyards" (Song of Sol. 2:15).

   885. Pigs were unclean and not domesticated by the Hebrews. They are mentioned, but the references are always negative. Jesus drew demons into a herd of pigs, and the prodigal son who squanders everything and ends up tending to pigs has reached the very lowest level of employment.

   886. Ravens and crows were common birds. The raven was the first bird to leave the ark (Gen. 8:6-7). Elijah was fed by ravens while he was hiding from enemies (1 Kings 17:6).

   887. The ostrich was abundant in the Arabian Desert in Job's time, but it became extinct there during World War II. Job paints a vivid word picture of the ostrich in chapter 39 (vv. 13-17).

   888. The crane is tall and stately with a wingspan of about eight feet. It is the largest migrating bird to fly over the Holy Land. Its mass flights are dramatic because the birds number in the thousands, and also because they make a trumpeting sound that fills the air. One of the loudest sounds made by any bird, it is produced by the crane's extremely long windpipe, which is coiled like a French horn.

  
  

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   879. The bear is given little mention in the Bible. However, they were perhaps feared more than lions (Amos 5:19). Researchers believe the references are to the Syrian brown bear, a species found today in certain parts of the Bible region. The young children who mocked Elisha because of his baldness were eaten by bears.

  880. Behemoth...or hippopotamus? In a long series of verses in chapter 40 of the Book of Job, the main character describes an animal he calls a "behemoth," but it is vey likely a hippopotamus. Hippopotami may have inhabited the Jordan Valley in Biblical times, although none are found there now. The Hebrews knew them in Egypt, and it is even possible that Job's behemoth is derived from the Egyptian name for this animal-pehemau, which means "ox of the water."

   881. An unknown beast. Job goes to great length (thirty-four verses in chapter 41) identifying the "leviathan." Commentators on the Bible disagree as to whether the leviathan was a crocodile, a whale, or even some mythical animal. Most likely Job had in mind a crocodile, although his description includes fire spouting from its mouth.

   882. The "beasts of the earth" that Jeremiah said would appear after the destruction of Judah probably referred to wild dogs and hyenas. Today dogs are known as "man's best friend," but during Biblical times packs of snarling dogs foraged through the city streets and even dug up corpses to feed on them. When Jezebel's body was eaten by dogs after her death, it was a sign of utter humiliation.

   883. The striped hyena is found in the Holy Land and was the most feared and detested of the animal kingdom in the ancient world, due to its habit of digging up graves. The only people who did not hold this strong aversion to hyenas were the Egyptians, who domesticated them for a source of food. Young hyenas are easy to tame and quickly become attached to their masters.

  

  

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   874. It is completely untrue that a camel has a special sense of direction in the trackless desert. In fact camels easily lose their way and often become separated from the rest of the caravans.

   875. Locusts are insects, the most-mentioned insect in the whole Bible. They destroy crops and plague people. They were one of the plagues sent upon Egypt by God before pharaoh let His people go out of the land. Some think they were permitted as food, however, because John the Baptist ate locusts and honey while staying in the wilderness (Mark 1:6).

   876. Insects such as ants and honeybees were well-respected in the Bible. Ants are busy animals and work hard to stay organized; Proverbs rewards the ant by giving it a place in Scripture. Honey was a special commodity in the Middle East, and honeybees were prized.

   877. Flies, fleas, and gnats (also translated "lice") were disliked strongly and could also carry disease. As in modern times, such insects were greatly unappreciated. They were a plague that descended on Egypt when pharaoh remained stubborn about letting the Israelites leave.

   878. Lions were kept by royalty and remain a sign of wealth and power. The regal beasts were a common enough animal in the Old Testament, but they have since become extinct in the Middle East. Killing a lion was a sign of great strength, as evidenced by David and Samson when they slew the majestic beasts.

  

  

  

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   869. Horses were used largely for battle purposes. They were a war symbol of power and strength. They weren't as strong or as capable as the donkeys, camels, and cattle to serve as beasts of burden.

   870. Jericho, an imposing fortress near where the Jordan enters the Dead Sea, stood in the way of the Israelites, but with the blasts of the ram's horn, or shofar, the walls tumbled down. Ancient breeds of sheep often grew huge horns from which musical instruments were made. The horn was heated with steam until it was soft enough for its natural curve to be straightened out. Then the wide end where the horn had been attached to the ram was bent at almost a right angle.

   871. The camel had not yet reached Egypt when Abraham visited, according to the findings of archaeologists. It was common in the Fertile Crescent where Abraham's servant was sent to find a bride for his son Isaac. In Genesis 24:12-21, the servant came upon Rebekah who, in offering to water the servant's camels, showed herself to be God's choice for Isaac.

   872. The Biblical camel is the one-humped kind, often called a dromedary. Camels are desirable animals only to people who live in deserts because they are excellently adapted to the conditions there. But most of the ancient world preferred other beasts of burden such as donkeys, horses, and oxen. The camel has only one baby every three years, and sometimes fewer than that. Its ability to learn is meager, and it is impossible to train one to respond as well as a horse. It is so bad tempered (especially the males) that Roman soldiers kept them outside the walls of their posts.

   873. It is true that a thirsty camel can drink enormous amounts of water very fast, about twenty-five gallons in approximately ten minutes. It is also true that a camel can travel four days without taking a single drink of water. It is not true, however, that water is stored in its hump. The camel's hump actually stores food. It is a mass of muscle around which fat accumulates. A camel can be fed at the beginning of a trip and not again until the end. After a long, hard journey, the hump shrinks and it flops to one side.

  

  

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   864. The first mention of a donkey, or ass, in the Bible occurs when it is stated that the Pharaoh of Egypt presented Abraham with several donkeys as gifts (Gen. 12:16). To the Egyptian, as in Abraham's culture, the donkey was solely a means of transporting goods. Only later was it used for riding, pulling the plow, and turning millstones to grind grain.

   865. The domesticated donkey is one of the world's most useful animals. And it certainly was to the Hebrews. Numerous laws were given about their treatment, which testifies to the important place they held in the Hebrew economy. A donkey had to be rested on the Sabbath, and one that had fallen under the weight of its burden had to be helped.

   866. Abraham used donkeys in his caravans long before camels were on the scene.

   867. The Hebrews were the only people in the ancient world recorded as riding on donkeys. And only the common people did so. It was considered humiliating for a ruler to ride on one. Biblical kings such as David are recorded as riding on mules (the hybrid mix of a male donkey and a female horse) or in chariots pulled by horses, but never on donkeys. So when Jesus rode on a donkey, it was a symbol of His humility.

   868. Donkeys go long periods without water, work hard in hot climates, and survive on a minimum amount of food. Also a donkeys milk is extremely nutritious, closely resembling human milk in its chemical composition.

  

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   859. The Bible is full of animal references. About eighty species of mammals are named, about twenty-five kinds of birds, eight types of reptiles and amphibians, and a dozen insects. We now know that many other living things inhabit these lands besides those named in the Bible. Yet this knowledge of approximately 125 kinds of animals reveals how remarkably familiar these ancient people were with the living things around them.

   860. Sheep were the most important domestic animals of the Hebrews. Both goats and sheep provided meat, but the sheep was preferred for its wool and the goat furnished milk. Sheep were generally only eaten for sacrifices. The sheep is named more often in the Bible than any other animal-more than four hundred times.

   861. The goat may have been the earliest food animal to be domesticated by man, and that probably took place in the vicinity of Jericho about nine thousand years ago. The only animal domesticated earlier was the dog! The goat is mentioned nearly two hundred times. Goats were especially appreciated for their ability to live on rough land and forage in difficult areas.

   862. Cattle are actually descended from a wild breed of ox. They were used early on in the Bible for their milk, although the bulls were eventually prized even more for their abilities to carry heavy loads. Cows even carried the Ark of the Covenant back to Israel (1 Sam. 6:7)!

   863. Cows are much more difficult to keep than sheep and goats. Cattle require more care, as well as a constant food supply, when they are in permanent settlements. Because Abraham lived much of his life as a nomad, he may have maintained cows, but certainly not as many as his sheep and goats.

  

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   855. The Nephilim are a people spoken of in Genesis 6. Some believe this people of great strength were the result of fallen angels marrying the daughters of men on earth to produce offspring of unusual size and strength. The Bible calls these people "the heroes of old, men of renown." God did not look with favor on the actions of these angels, and their offspring were eventually wiped out with the flood.

   856. Satan is perhaps the most famous angel of all time. He is a fallen angel, one who was cast out of Heaven after rebelling against God. Paul speaks of how satan "masquerades as an angel of light" (2 Cor. 11:14). In reality satan is "the prince of darkness."

   857. A final battle between the good angels and the fallen angels is prophesized in Revelation 12:7-9: "And there was war in Heaven. Michael [archangel] and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in Heaven. The great dragon was hurled down-that ancient serpent called the devil, or satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him."

   858. Christians will see angels on the last day. Matthew 24:31 states that God will "send His angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather His elect from the four winds, from one end of the Heavens to the other." Angels will escort believers into Heaven and to the Holy Throne!

  

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   849. The apostle Paul tells us of the four orders of angels in his letter to the Ephesians: "above all principality, and power, and might, and dominion" (KJV). He also writes to the Colossians concerning angels: whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or powers.)
 
   850. Saint Thomas, who was also from the early church, divided the angels into three hierarchies with three orders of angels in each. Where they are in terms of God Himself is the main basis for the divisions. The seraphim, cherubim, and thrones are in the first one; the dominations, virtues, and powers in the second; and the principalities, archangels, and angels are in the third and final hierarchy.

   851. Only two personal names for angels are given in the Bible: Michael and Gabriel. Other angels with personal names are given in the Apocrypha, such as Uriel and Jeremiel.

   852. Gabriel makes appearances in both the Old and New Testament. He interprets Daniel's visions in the Book of Daniel and also announces the births of John and Jesus to their respective parents.

  853. Michael is an archangel and a warrior in the angelic realm. He is the protector of Israel, according to several references in the Book of Daniel and one in the Book of Revelation.

   854. Fallen angels are angels who have rebelled against God and lost their standing in Heaven. They have not been cast into hell, and they are under God's power, but they take orders from satan (Rev. 12:7).

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   843. Hebrews 1:14 says angels are "ministering spirits sent to serve those who will inherit salvation." As such they come to our aid and offer help where they can to make our lives better. They are spiritual beings that remain invisible.

   844. A "heavenly host" is not merely a bunch of angels. The term means an "angel army." The heavenly host that came upon the shepherds when Jesus was born was singing and praising God, but they were a "company" of God's army of angels nonetheless.

   845. Jacob's vision depicts the angels as being lined up on an immense ladder that stretches between the earth and the heavens (Gen. 28:12-15). God looks down and sees us and watches as the angels bring their messages from Him.

   846. There is a hierarchical organization  of angels, though it is uncertain exactly what that might look like. There are seven angels in God's presence that surround the throne. These angels are constantly worshiping their Creator.

   847. Saint Denis the Areopagite wrote a treatise called "DeCoelesti Hierarchia" that claims there are defined levels and ranks of angels. However, his work was largely unaccepted except for that pertaining to choirs of angels. The church heartily accepts this idea but does not make believing in varying levels of angels a requirement.

   848. Gregory the Great demonstrated what the early church believed concerning angels with his comments: "There are nine orders of angels, viz., Angels, Archangels, Virtues, Powers, Principalities, Dominations, Throne, Cherubim, Seraphim." He based this on the apostle Paul's findings as well as other Scriptures.

  

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   838. People had forgotten what cherubim signified by Jesus' time, and the historian Josephus wrote in the first century A.D. that "no one can tell what they were like." Now archaeology has unearthed much of the forgotten past of the Biblical world, and it is believed that a cherub was a small wing-bearing lion with a human head, in other words a sphinx. This was the winged creature most often portrayed in Canaanite art, and Canaanite kings are often shown seated on thrones supported by two cherubim. The Israelites may have adapted the cherubim to make a throne for the invisible presence of God.

   839. Angels have three important responsibilities: to attend God's Holy Throne, to protect people, and to serve as messengers carrying special news or tidings. They are worshipful beings that serve God by carrying out His wishes through these three main roles.

   840. Daniel gives a prophetic picture of what attending the throne of the Almighty God appears like:


               The Ancient of Days took His seat.
               His clothing was as white as snow;
                  the hair of His head was white like wool...
               A river of fire was flowing,
                  coming out from before Him.
               Thousands upon thousands attended Him;
                  ten thousand times ten thousand stood before Him.
                                                                      
                                                                            Daniel 7:9-10


Angels are all around God, worshiping Him.

841. Guardian angels are spoken of throughout the Bible. Abraham spoke of God sending His angel before His servant Elias as the steward went to seek out a wife for Abraham's son Isaac. Psalm 91:11-12 also speaks of watchful angels:

               For He will command His angels concerning you
                  to guard you in all your ways;
               they will lift you up in their hands,
                  so that you will not strike your foot against a stone.

842. As messengers the angels communicate God's will to us. They serve as rescuers (such as when Lot was saved from Sodom); as bearers of great tidings (to Mary concerning the birth of Jesus); to instruct prophets (Daniel was given detailed direction from "the man Gabriel"). Angels are mediators who pass along messages God has for His people.

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   832. The word angel comes from the Greek word aggelos (pronounced angelos) and means "messenger." In the Bible this is the form used in almost every mention of angels except one-in Luke 20:36 (KJV) where the phrase reads "equal unto the angels," or the Greek word isaggelos, which means "like an angel or angelic."

   833. Angels are beings that are created as "intermediate" beings between God and man. They are created beings by God, making them lower, but Psalm 8:5 states that man was made a little lower than the angels.

   834. There are more than three hundred references to angels in the Bible. They play an important role and are seen in some of the most famous Bible stories, including the Christmas story.

   835. An angel is neither a god nor a human. Angels are spirits, as Hebrews say: [they are] ministering spirits sent to serve those who will inherit salvation."

   836. The first mention of angels in the Bible is when Adam and Eve left the Garden of Eden after the fall. "They are banished from Eden, and Eden is protected by cherubim", angels that are depicted elsewhere as winged bulls or lions with human heads.

   837. Cherubim are symbolic attendants to places of the Lord's "enthronement" on earth in the Old Testament. They guard the Garden of Eden and the Ark of the Covenant.

  

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   827. Jesus took no public stand against slavery, racism, class warfare, state-sponsored terrorism, military occupation, or corruption in government in the Gospels. He spoke not a word against abortion or infanticide, homosexuality or the exploitation of women and children. Of all the social evils of His day, Jesus spoke out against the pharisees and their spiritual corruption.

   828. One sacrifice that only the women gave to the Lord was offered after the birth of a child: "When the days of her purification for a son or daughter are over, she is to bring to the priest at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting a year-old lamb for a burnt offering and a young pigeon or a dove for a sin offering" (Lev. 12:6).

    829. Jewish women were perhaps less active in temple or synagogue worship than later in history. Although there was a special area at the temple known as the "court of women," women were not allowed to go into the inner court. Sources other than the Bible indicate that women did not read the Torah or recite prayers in the synagogue, but they could sit and listen in the special women's area.

   830. A different picture unfolds in the early Christian church. Luke 8:1-3 indicates that Jesus welcomed some women as traveling companions. He encouraged Martha and Mary to sit at His feet as disciples.

   831. After Jesus ascended into Heaven, several women met with the other disciples in the upper room to pray. Both men and women gathered at the home of John Mark's mother to pray for the release of Peter; and both men and women prayed regularly in the church at Corinth (which is why Paul gave instructions to both men and women about how to pray in public).

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   821. In the East the custom of arranged marriages goes back to early Old Testament times. When Esau married against his parents' wishes, he caused Isaac and Rebekah grief. Why did parents insist on their right to select a bride for their son? The new bride became a member of the bridegroom's clan, and the whole family had a vested interest in knowing if she would be a good fit. There is evidence that sometimes the son or daughter was consulted, as in Rebekah's case when she was asked if she was willing to go and become the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:58).

   822. What's love got to do with it? Eastern peoples consider love between husband and wife very much like westerners do between brother and sister. It is believed that husbands and wives should love one another because God chose them for each other through the selection of their parents. Love comes after marriage. There are some exceptions to the rule. The case of Jacob and Rachel is the most notable example. For Jacob it was love at first sight (Gen. 29:10-18).

   823. For centuries it has been possible for a husband in Arab lands to divorce his wife by a spoken word. When the wife is divorced, she is entitled to all her wearing apparel, and the husband cannot take anything from her that she has on her body. For this reason, coins on the headgear, rings, and necklaces became an important source of wealth in time of a woman's need. Such customs of divorce were no doubt prevalent in Gentile lands during Old Testament times. A woman was not allowed to divorce her husband.

   824. A husband must give a written certificate of divorce (Deut. 24:1) to his wife in order to divorce her. This is so that she may remarry. The prophet Malachi taught that God hated divorce and severely condemned any man who dealt treacherously with the wife of his covenant (Mal. 2:14-16).

   825. The sin of adultery did not have anything to do with divorce under the Jewish law. Adultery was punishable by death or stoning (Lev. 20:10). A man who was guilty of unfaithfulness was considered a criminal only in that he had invaded the rights of another man. Jesus swept away all grounds for divorce under the law, and made unfaithfulness the lone grounds for divorce for New Testament Christians (Matt. 5:31-32).

   826. Prostitutes often appear in the stories of the Bible. There were two kinds of prostitutes in the Hebrew Scriptures. There were "cultic prostitutes" of the Canaanite religion, but Rahab, the prostitute in Jericho, was a zonah, which is Hebrew for a common prostitute. Rahab was the prostitute who hid Israelite spies and later dangled a red cord out her window to mark her house for protection during the conquest of Jericho. New Testament genealogy in Matthew lists Rahab as the mother of Boaz, who married Ruth and is an ancestor of David, as well as Jesus.

  

  

  

Culture Shock between the Ages l

   815. The Bible speaks about miracles without making apology or even changing its tone. In other words, it doesn't anticipate skepticism. It considers the whole creation rather miraculous. Its writers show the same awe for a sunrise as for a day when the sun stands still.

   816. Male-female relationships in the Bible do-compared to our present-day standards-put women in a subordinate position to men. But when the Bible is compared to the standards of the day in which it was written, it continually gave women a better place in life than that culture allowed them. 

   817. A modern atheist says that he or she doesn't believe ion God-not gods. Antiquity knew no such atheists. Everyone and every nation had a god of their own, and usually more than one. The proclamation of monotheism must have sounded very strange to the surrounding cultures of that time.

   818. The issue of intermarriage is still a divisive and emotional question among contemporary Jews because it defines who is a Jew. According to Jewish law, a Jew is one who is born to a Jewish mother or is converted to Judaism.

   819. The Mosaic law allowed polygamy (more than one wife) among the Hebrew people. Wives were given certain protections against abuses and there were various regulations regarding these marriages. There was among the Israelites, however, a marked tendency toward monogamy (only one wife). The main reason may have been that the custom of having more than one wife was too expensive people.

   820. The Mosaic law did forbid multiple wives for the kings of Israel with the warning that the king's heart would be led astray (Deut. 17:17). The cause of much trouble in the lives of David and Solomon, as well as Ahab, was that they followed the example of the kings in their day of taking many heathen wives, (sometimes many concubines) rather than obeying God's law. Men like Adam, Noah, Isaac, Joseph, Moses, and Job had only one wife.

  

  

 

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   810. Relatives and friends continued their laments from the time the death wail was heard until the burial. The prophet Micah compared it to the cry of wild beasts or birds. During these lamentations, loved ones exclaimed their sorrow, repeating words over and over as David did when he mourned the death of Absalom: "O my son Absalom! My son, my son Absalom! If only I had died instead of you-O Absalom, my son, my son!" (2 Sam. 18:33).

   811. Professional mourners, who were called in at the time of sorrow to express mourning for the dead, are mentioned by the Hebrew prophets: "Call for the mourning women, that they may come;...And let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us (Jer. 9:17-18 KJV). Professional wailers were hired like singers would be for a Western funeral.

   812. Sackcloth was worn, and they often tore their garments in order to let people know the depth of their grief (2 Sam. 3:31). Even today mourners will cry freely and beat their breasts to express sorrow. It is interesting to note, however, that priests were not allowed to rip their clothes even to mourn a parent's death.

   813. Burial follows death quickly, usually the same day. The people of these regions have a primitive idea that the spirit of the one who dies hovers near the body for three days after death. Mourners believe this spirit is able to hear the wailing calls of grief. Martha, no doubt, thought it would be hopeless to think of reviving her brother's body, because he had been dead four days (John 11:39).

   814. Three classes of Arabs are found in Palestine. The nomad or Bedouin Arabs are shepherds who live in tents. The peasant or Fellahin Arabs are farmers and usually live in villages in one-room houses. City or Belladin  Arabs do business in the larger cities. The Belladin Arabs have come in contact with Western civilization and their manners and customs have undergone many changes. The peasant farmers. however, have changed customs very little and the Bedouins have adopted almost no changes.

Sickness and Death l

   805. Sickness could be expected when God's Law was disobeyed, according to the law. The twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy lists many curses that would come upon the children of Israel because of disobedience. Therefore the Israelites would grow up believing that health was a reward for obedience and sickness came as punishment. The ancient Hebrews did not go to physicians when they were ill. There are surprisingly few references to doctors in the Old Testament times, and it's possible that those mentioned were foreigners (2 Chron. 16:12; Job 13:4; Jer. 8:22).

   806. Multitudes of sick people in the land are described in the New Testament Gospel records. Many were brought to Jesus to be healed.

   807. The Jews of the New Testament lacked knowledge of medicine, so they would seek help from the most pious man for healing power, rather than the most educated. They believed sickness was punishment for the sin of the sick person or a relative. Concerning the blind man, the disciples asked Jesus, "Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?" (John 9:2).

   808. Mark adds an interesting fact in his account of Christ healing the woman with an issue of blood. He says that she "had suffered a great deal under the care of many doctors and had spent all she had" (Mark 5:26). One scholar of the Talmud of Babylon suggests that some of the rabbis posed as physicians and some prescribed very queer remedies for a woman with this type of ailment. If one procedure didn't succeed, another one was suggested.

   809. As soon as a death took place, a wail was raised to announce to all the neighborhood what had happened. This was a sign for the relatives to begin their grieving. The death wail is described as a sharp, shrill, ear-piercing shriek. This shriek is followed by prolonged wails. This death wail was referred to in connection with the death of all the firstborn in Egypt. "Pharaoh and all his officials and all the Egyptians got up during the night, and there was loud wailing in Egypt, for there was not a house without someone dead" (Exod. 12:30).

  


  
  

Food V

   801. Meals were eaten on a mat spread on the ground (like a picnic blanket), or at a low table when the diners were commoners. The Hebrew word pronounced "Shool-khawn," usually translated "table," has as its root meaning "a skin or leather mat spread on the ground." While eating, people would sit on the floor with their legs folded under them or in the position of kneeling.

   802. A blessing was said  by each person after the master of the house said it, such as "In the name of God," or "God be praised." Only after all had said the blessing did they begin to eat by dipping or scooping with their bread in a common serving bowl. The only dishes used were those in which the food was placed on the table; there were no individual dishes for those dining. Gideon put the meat in a basket, and the broth in a pot (Judg. 6:19). Meat was generally eaten with the fingers.

   803. A prayer of thanks was said at the end of the meal. Deuteronomy 8:10 states: "When you have eaten and are satisfied, praise the Lord your God for the good land He has given you." It was customary for one of the guests to give the thanks in a loud voice, and for the rest to say, "Amen."

   804. The Hebrew families looked to the promise God originally gave to them about health for their bodies throughout their wilderness experiences and after they were in the Promised Land. "If you listen carefully to the voice of the Lord your God and do what is right in His eyes, if you pay attention to His commands and keep all His decrees, I will not bring on you any of the diseases I brought on the Egyptians, for I am the Lord, who heals you" (Exod. 15:26). Health was promised if they were obedient to the Law of God.

  

Food lV

   795. Nuts also count as a protein source, and though meat was rare, nuts weren't. Almonds and pistachios are mentioned in Genesis 43:11.

   796. Numerous references to honey and honeycomb in God's Word are proof that the Holy Land abounded with the sweet stuff. Many Scriptural citations indicate that wild honey was very common, being found in cavities of trees, such as when Jonathan discovered and ate some honey (1 Sam. 14:25-27). It is also mentioned as being found in the holes of rock, where it was often extracted (Ps. 81:16), and even in the dried carcasses of animals, as when Samson ate honey from the carcass of the lion (Judg. 14:8-9).

   797. Honey is used in the poetic books of the Hebrew Bible to make many comparisons. The judgments of God are compared to it (Ps. 19:10). Pleasant words are likened to it (Prov. 16:24), as are knowledge and wisdom to the soul (Prov. 24:13-14). And the bride and bridegroom of Solomon's Song speak of honey (Song of Sol. 4:11; 5:1).

   798. Seasoning most often refers to salt (Job 6:6). However, other types of spice, such as dill ("anise" in the KJV), mint, cumin, and coriander are also mentioned.

   799. What is "kosher"? Many people, Jew and Gentile alike, commonly ask if something is kosher, loosely using the term to mean "permissible" or "okay." Kosher is a Yiddish word for "proper" that derives from the Hebrew word Kashrut. Although in the modern sense we commonly associate "kosher" with only dietary laws, the notion of what is "proper" covers a broad range of items that must be done in accordance with the law.

   800. Hand washing  is very important to the Israelites. They are careful to wash their hands before each meal. Water was poured (most often by a servant) over the hands to be washed as they were held over a basin. Because the Hebrew people did not eat with silverware, washing was a necessity. Elisha poured water over the hands of Elijah in 2 Kings 3:11. As Elijah's servant, this was an important part of Elisha's duties.

Food lll

   789. Figs, though mentioned often enough and thought of largely as food by contemporary sources, were grown for medicinal purposes as well as general consumption in Bible times.

   790. Wine was the most common alcoholic drink. It is mentioned throughout the Bible. The vineyard and the process of making wine are common examples in Jesus' teachings, most likely because they were familiar analogies for people since the beverage was so common.

   791. Beer was brewed in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and perhaps the Israelites were familiar with this beverage also. Also brewed in these two areas was a wine made of figs.

   792. Milk was considered a substantial food for all ages in Bible times. The Promised Land was often called "a land flowing with milk and honey" (Exod. 3:8; 13:5; Josh. 5:6; Jer. 11:5). A form of milk that is commonly used among the Arabs today is called "leben," which means "white." It is like our sour milk curds. It was probably this that Abraham gave to his guests (Gen. 18:8) and also that Jael gave to Sisera (Judg. 4:19; 5:25).

   793. Butter and cheese were made from the rich cream and curds (Prov. 30:33; Job 10:10). As the Hebrews didn't eat meat often, these would have served as a protein source for the people.

   794. Meat was only eaten on special occasions, such as when a stranger or guest was entertained, or when a feast was made. Kings and wealthy men, on the other hand, ate meat often. The daily menu of four kinds of meat for King Solomon's court is given in Scripture: beef, mutton, game, and fowl    (1 Kings 4:23).


  

Food ll

   785. The expression "eating bread" is often used in the Bible to mean eating a whole meal. When the Bible says, "The Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews" (Gen. 43:32 KJV), it means that they would likely not eat a meal with them. In Lamentations 4:4 we read: "The young children ask for bread, and no man breaketh it unto them" (KJV). The expression "breaking of bread" means the taking of a meal.

   786. The Israelite's Egyptian diet included a lot of leeks, onions, and garlic, and the prophet Isaiah mentions a "garden of cucumber" (Isa. 1:8 KJV). Gourds were also used (2 Kings 4:39).

   787. The two most widely used vegetables in Bible times, however, were beans and lentils. The most famous Biblical use of lentils was, of course, the selling of Esau's birthright for a meal of lentil stew with bread (Gen. 25:34).

   788. Fruits included olives and grapes, which were eaten fresh and also dried as raisins (1 Sam. 25:18) or made into wine. Pomegranates were grown for their juice, and it is possible, though not likely, that apples were grown as well. Both of the latter fruits are mentioned in Song of Songs.

  

  

  

Food l

   777. A single large olive tree in Biblical times provided an entire family with all of the oil it needed for food and lamps, as much as half a ton of it a year. The tree gave a year-round crop because both the unripe and the ripe fruit are edible. So the olive leaf in the dove's beak promised a rebirth of life to Noah and his family.

   778. The ordinary food of the average Hebrew of Bible times was bread, olives, oil, buttermilk, and cheese from their flocks, fruits and vegetables from their orchards and gardens, and meat on rare occasions.

   779. The eating of raw grain is a modern custom in Palestine that dates back to very ancient days. Contemporary Arabs often pick the heads of grain, rub them in their hands, and eat them. Some pharisees approached Jesus and His disciples as they ate raw grain in the fields. "One Sabbath Jesus was going through the grainfields, and His disciples began to pick some heads of grain, rub them in their hands and eat the kernels" (Luke 6:1).

   780. When grain in the wheat field has passed the "milk stage" and begins to harden, it is called "fereek" and is considered delicious eaten raw. For centuries the unwritten law of hospitality has been that wayfarers may eat some of the wheat as they pass by or through a field, but they must not carry any away with them. The Law of God allowed this same privilege in Deuteronomy 23:35.

   781. Parched grain is another common food eaten in Bible times. It is prepared with grains of wheat that are not fully ripe. They are roasted in a pan or on an iron plate. The grain is eaten with or without bread. Jesse sent some of it with David to his older sons in the army (1 Sam. 17:17). Abigail included some in her gift to David (1 Sam. 25:18), and David received some from friends after he had fled from Absalom (2 Sam. 17:28).

   782. Besides wheat and barley, millet and spelt ("rie" in some translations) were also grown. Wheat was the first choice of people, with barley reserved for the poor. Spelt is actually a weak strain of wheat.

  

Worship ll

   773. The pilgrimage made to the place of sanctuary was a very important part of Hebrew life. "Three times a year all your men are to appear before the Sovereign Lord, the God of Israel" (Exod. 34:23). The whole family could go, but the men and boys were required to go. Remember Joseph and Mary traveled a day's journey on their return from Jerusalem before discovering that Jesus was missing. Because clans traveled together, parents could go for hours without seeing their sons.

   774. Jewish boys had to be able to recite "the Shema," a prayer, by the age of twelve. The prayer was the qoutation of three passages from the Pentateuch that was repeated morning and evening by Jewish men. The three passages were from Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41.

   775. The idea of minyan is central to the spiritual life of Jewish people. While anyone can pray at any time, before an official prayer service can be held there must be at least ten men present. This group of men is called a minyan. It was stated in the law that whenever ten adult men were gathered together in the name of God, the Lord Himself would actually be present in the room with them. Any room then became consecrated ground, a Holy place where men could perform their religious rituals and worship God.

   776. The early gathering place for Christian worship was in people's homes. The earliest excavation of a church by archaeologists, where a date has been assigned (dating back to the third century A.D.), is of a room within a house that was set apart for worship and furnished as a chapel. In the days of the apostles, believers also took seriously their responsibility to care for believers who came to their town. In a time of persecution, this refuge was very important to those who traveled to spread the Gospel.

 

 

Worship l

   767. Canaanites and Phoenicians worshiped many nature gods. Baal, who was regarded as master of the earth, had an arm that hurled bolts of lightning, and his voice caused thunder. The Israelites referred to baal as baal-zebul or beelzebub, which means "lord of the flies," no doubt referring to the hordes of flies that buzzed around the animals sacrificed to this god. By New Testament times beelzebub had become a title for satan.

   768. Mutual gods. Just as the Israelites were attracted to Canaanite gods, so were the Philistines. Their deities-dagon, ashtaroth, and baal-zebub-were related to Canaanite gods.

   769. The father was the priest of the whole family in the days of the early patriarchs. This honor and responsibility was then passed down to the firstborn son after the father's death. This practice continued until the Law of Moses transferred the right to the tribe of Levi, who became the priests of the Hebrew nation.

   770. The altar. Throughout the Old Testament many altars were built and described. After Abraham pitched his tent in the vicinity of Bethel, the Scripture says, "There he built an altar to the Lord and called on the name of the Lord" (Gen. 12:8). Altars served as monuments of Holiness and provided an approach to God through sacrifice.

   771. Clay figures called teraphim were household gods that served as guardian angels of the home in Babylonia. At the death of a father they were passed down to the eldest son. When Jacob left the home of Laban in Haran, Rachel stole the teraphim that belonged to her father (Gen. 31:19). This made Laban very upset, so he pursued Jacob's caravan. Even though Jacob told his family to get rid of the foreign gods and purify themselves, the teraphim appeared several times in later history of the Israelites.

   772. Religious education in the family became a special mark of Judaism. The Law of Moses was very specific in its requirements that parents must train their children in the knowledge of God and His laws. The emphasis on this education in the family has contributed largely to the permanence of the Jews in history.

 

 

Guests and Hospitality lV

   761. One of the first beverages a guest is offered is a drink of water. This is to recognize him as a person worthy of peaceful reception. To give a drink of water is the simplest way to pledge friendship with a person. The words of Jesus in the Gospel of Mark (9:41) demonstrate this custom, "Anyone who gives you a cup of water in My name because you belong to Christ will certainly not lose his reward."

   762. The sharing of food in Eastern cultures is a very special act of hospitality. It is a way of making a covenant of peace and fidelity. When Abimelech wanted a permanent covenant with Isaac, the confirmation of that covenant came when Isaac "made a feast for them, and they ate and drank" (Gen. 26:30).

   763. "The guest while in the house is its lord." This is a true statement of the spirit of Eastern hospitality. One of the first greetings a Palestinian host will give his guest is to say, "Hadtha beitak." meaning "This is your house." This phrase is repeated many times during the guest's stay. There was a similar attitude between Lot and his guests when he said, "My lords, please turn aside to your servant's house" (Gen. 19:2).

   764. Defending to the death. In the lands of the East, when a host accepts a man as his guest he agrees to defend the guest from all possible enemies during the time of his stay, whatever the cost. The poet felt utterly secure, though he had enemies close to him, when he knew that God was his host. "You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies" (Ps. 23:5).

   765. Eastern people make mention of God in daily conversation. An astonished person will exclaim, "Mashallah," or "See what God has done!" which is the exact expression used by Balaam centuries ago (Num. 23:23). If a person is asked if he expects to do a certain thing, he will answer, "If God wills." Such an answer was recommended by James in his epistle (James 4:15).

 

 

 

 

 

Guests and Hospitality lll

   755. Customs of hospitality and honor for guests are very important in the East. When a guest first enters a home, bowing between the guest and host will take place. An expressive custom is that of saluting with the head erect and the body inclined forward by raising the hand to the heart, mouth, and forehead. The symbolic meaning of this is to say, "My heart, my voice, and my brain are all at your service." On many occasions those who are used to this custom enter into a more complete bow afterward.

   756. The greetings upon entering an Arab house or a Bedouin tent go something like this: The host will say, "Salam, alakum," which means "Peace be on you." The guest will then respond with the words "Wa alakum es-salam," meaning "And on you peace." The greeting is then followed with a kiss. The men will place their right hand on the other's left shoulder and kiss the right cheek, and then reverse the action. Scriptural examples of the kiss are found when Jacob kissed his father; Esau kissed Jacob; Joseph kissed his brothers; Aaron kissed Moses; Moses kissed Jethro; David and Jonathan kissed each other; and the father of the prodigal son kissed him when he returned home.

   757. Guests take off their shoes before entering the main room of a house. This is necessary because they will sit on a mat, rug, or divan, with their feet beneath them. Shoes would soil the couch and their clothes. This led to a custom of removing shoes upon entering sacred places. At the burning bush the Lord told Moses, "Take off your sandals, for the place where you are standing is Holy Ground" (Exod. 3:5).

   758. The Eastern guest is offered water for washing his feet after the bowing, greeting, and kissing are completed. A servant will assist the guest by pouring water over the guest's feet above a copper basin, rubbing them with his hands, and wiping them on a towel. When Jesus was with His disciples, He took the place of the servant and washed their feet.

   759. The custom of anointing guests is an ancient one among nations of the East. Olive oil is often used by itself, but sometimes it is mixed with spices. Simon the pharisee was accused of being inhospitable because he didn't anoint Jesus (Luke 7:46). David memorialized this custom when he wrote in his shepherd psalm, "You anoint my head with oil" (Ps. 23:5).

   760. Many accounts of anointing are found in the Bible, each carrying different meanings of the custom as a way of showing courtesy, respect, and devotion; for healing purposes; and as a symbol of the pouring out of God's Spirit.

 

Guests and Hospitality ll

   750. Guests were also honored by being seated at the right of the host during the meals. The next highest place was at the left of the host. Jesus condemned the pharisees for their insistence on having the highest places of distinction when they were invited to a banquet.

   751. Dancing was often part of the entertainment at feasts. When the prodigal son returned home, there was music and dancing (Luke 15:24-25). Mainly the women and girls danced, although sometimes men did too, as David did when the ark was brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:14). But there is no Scriptural record that Jewish men danced with the women.

   752. Sharing hospitality with others was an integral part of Israelite life. Men of the East believed guests were sent by God. Therefore providing for their hospitality became a sacred duty. When Abraham entertained three strangers who proved to be angels, his enthusiasm seemed to indicate this same belief (Gen. 18:2-7). We typically think of guests as friends or business acquaintances. But in the East there are three types of guests: friends, strangers, and enemies.

   753. Strangers as guests. An old Eastern proverb says, "Every stranger is an invited guest." Like Abraham, the Bedouin Arab of today will sit in the entrance of his tent in order to be on the watch for a stranger and guest (Gen. 18:1). In the New Testament, when Paul taught the Roman believers to be "given to hospitality" (Rom. 12:13 KJV), he was referring to the same thing. The Greek word he used for hospitality is pronounced :fil-ox-en-ee-ah," which means "love to strangers."

   754. Enemies as guests. One remarkable aspect of Eastern hospitality is that an enemy can be received as a guest. As long as he remains in that relationship, he is perfectly safe and is treated as a friend. Certain tribes of tent-dwellers live by the rule that an enemy who has "once dismounted and touched the rope of a single tent is safe."

   

  

Guests and Hospitality l

   744. A custom of sending double invitations to a special event has been observed in some parts of the East. Several examples of this custom are found in the Bible. At some time before the feast is to be served, an invitation is sent forth; then when the appointed time draws near, a servant is sent again to announce that everything is now ready. One example of this is in the parable of the great supper: "A certain man was preparing a great banquet and invited many guests. At the time of the banquet he sent his servant to tell those who had been invited, 'Come, for everything is now ready'" (Luke 14:16-17).

   745. "Then the master told his servant, 'Go out to the roads and country lanes and make them come in, so that my house will be full'" (Luke 14:23). In the East the one invited is expected to reject an invitation upon the first invite. He must be urged to accept. All the while he expects to attend, but he must allow the one inviting him the privilege of "compelling him" to accept.

   746. Ancient banquets were usually held at night in brilliantly lighted rooms, and anybody who was excluded from the feast was said to be cast out of the lighted room into "the outer darkness" of the night. In the teaching of Jesus, the day of judgment is likened to being excluded from the banquet (Matt. 8:12). In the East a lamp is usually kept burning all night. Because of people's fear of the darkness, the Savior could have chosen no more appropriate words than "outer darkness" for the future punishment of the unrighteous.

   747. Seats were uncommon in early Bible times, except in the king's circle or at other times of ceremony. The prophet Amos was the first of the Biblical writers to refer to the custom of "stretch [ing] themselves upon their couches" when eating (Amos 6:4). By the time of Jesus the Romans were accustomed to reclining on couches at supper.

   748. A triclinium was a common dining setup of the Romans. It included a short square table with three couches to surround three sides of the perimeter. The fourth side was left open so the servant could reach the table easily.

   749. Guests of honor were held in special esteem when they were assigned to a room with a higher floor than the rest of the house. Many houses had such a room for special company.

 

Houses ll

   739. Cisterns were often built in the courtyards for water, and fires were built for warmth, as described by Simon Peter's experience in the courtyard of the high priest's house where Jesus was being tried (John 18:18). The courtyard was a place to eat and also a place to bathe. When David looked down from his palace rooftop and saw the beautiful Bathsheba bathing (2 Sam. 11:2), she was in the courtyard of her house, a protected place not visible to ordinary observation.

   740. The roof of an Arab's house was and is used today for a large variety of purposes, much like it was used in the days of the prophets and the apostles. It is used for storage (Josh. 2:6), as a place to sleep (1 Sam. 9:26), a spot for gathering in times of excitement to see down the streets (Isa. 22:1), a place of public proclamations (Matt. 10:27), a place of worship and prayer (Zeph. 1:5; Acts 10:9), and as a way of escape in time of danger (Matt. 24:17; Mark 13:15; Luke 17:31).

   741. Candles weren't a part of Bible life. The King James Version of the Bible frequently uses the word candle because candles were so widely used at the time that version was written. However, a literal translation of the original words use lamp or light. Bible characters knew nothing about candles.

   742. A lamp was considered to be the Palestinian peasant's one luxury that was a necessity. When the sun set, the door of his house was shut, and then the lamp was lit. To sleep without a light was considered by most villages to be a sign of extreme poverty. When a late traveler saw a light in a house, he knew there was life there. To wish a man's light be put out was to wish on him a terrible curse.  

   743. Fuel is so scarce in the Holy Lands that peasants often burn dried dung and sell sticks that they gatherered. Dried grass and withered flowers are also carefully gathered into bundles and used for making a fire. This was done in the days of old as well. As Jesus said, "The grass of the field, which today is, and tomorrow is cast into the oven" (Matt. 6:30 KJV; Luke 12:28). Another popular fuel is thorns or thorny shrubs. The widow of Zarephath gathered sticks to build a fire (1 Kings 17:10), but the fire built in the courtyard of the high priest where Simon Peter warmed himself was built with charcoal (John 18:18 KJV).

  

Houses l

   734. A life of agriculture took the place of the wandering life of nomads after Israel had been in the land of Canaan for many years and settled in. Houses began to take the place of tents. The average home of the common people was a one-room shelter. In Bible times, people spent as much time as possible in God's outdoors. The Hebrew word for house is bayith and means shelter. It served only as a place to rest after a day outside. The sacred writers referred to God as a "shelter" or a "refuge" (Ps. 61:3; Isa. 4:6).

   735. The one-room houses were usually made of clay bricks dried in the sun (similar to adobe houses in Mexico), but sometimes they were made of rough, local sandstone and set with a mud mortar. Only the palaces or houses of the wealthy were constructed of hewn stones, like the palaces of Solomon (1 Kings 7:9).

   736. The roofs of these humble houses were made by laying beams across from wall to wall, then putting down a mat of reeds or thorn bushes and over it a coating of clay or mud. Sand and pebbles were then scattered over this and a stone roller was used to make it smooth enough to shed rain.

   737. Earthy homes create challenges unfamiliar to westerners. It is not uncommon to see grass growing on the tops of the houses, as the Bible even references, "May they be like grass on the roof, which withers before it can grow" (Ps. 129:6; see also 2 Kings 19:26; Isa. 37:27). With a dirt roof, leaks often soak through after a heavy rain. The Book of Proverbs compares this dripping to a quarrelsome wife (Prov. 19:13; 27:15). Not only did dripping cause trouble, but snakes often crawled in through cracks, and thieves could dig through and get into the house. Job said, "In the dark they dig through houses, which they had marked for themselves in the daytime" (Job 24:16 KJV).

   738. The houses with one room were in the villages and those with more than one room were in the cities. If a house with two rooms was to be built, the rooms weren't placed side by side. Rather the breadth of another room was left between the two rooms, and a wall was constructed between the ends to make an open court. If there were three or more rooms, a room would be substituted for the wall at the end of the court and there would be more rooms around the courtyard, making a secluded area from the street.

  

Tents

   728. Tents are one of the earliest family shelters mentioned in the Bible. The first reference to tent life in the Scriptures is found in Genesis 4:20, when Jabal is described as "the father of such as dwell in tents." Following the flood Japheth was said to have lived "in the tents of Shem" (Gen. 9:27 KJV).  The patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, lived most of their lives in tents, in and around the land of Canaan. The children of Israel lived in tents during their forty years in the wilderness and for many years after entering the Promised Land. Hundreds of years later, in the days of David, it was said to the king, "The ark, and Israel, and Judah, abide in tents" (2 Sam. 11:11).

   729. The Bedouin's home is his tent, which is made of black goat hair. This is the same material as the sackcloth of Bible times. The main overhead portion is a large awning that is held up by poles. The ends of the tent are drawn out by cords tied to pegs and driven into the ground. It was one of these tent pegs that Jael used to drive into Sisera's head while he slept (Judg. 4:21).

   730. The tent is usually oblong and divided into two and sometimes three rooms by goat-hair curtains. The entrance leads into the men's quarters where quests are received. Beyond this is the area for the women and children. Sometimes a third section is used for servants or cattle. The women in the inner section are screened from the view of those in the reception room, but they can hear what goes on. Remember Sarah overheard the angel and laughed (Gen, 18:10-15).

   731. Bible time nomads were constantly on the move so their furnishings included only the necessities. Rugs covered the ground and bedding was brought out at night. They laid on mats or carpets and covered themselves with their outer garments worn during the day. In a nomad tent you would find bags of grain and a handmill and mortar with which to pound the grain. Hanging from the poles would be skin bags or bottles for water and other liquids; a leather bucket to draw water up from any well available; an earthen pitcher used by women to carry water; and a few pots, kettles, and pans. Serving dishes included mats, platters or larger dishes, and cups for drinking. For some, a primitive lamp was used at night. If the family had a camel, then the camelbags or saddle would have been used as seats.

   732. Seeing new tents is and was out of the ordinary. Even today goat clippings are accumulated over the course of the year, and with these, the women make new strips to repair the old tent. The section that is most worn is ripped out and a new piece is sewn in. The old piece is then used for a side curtain. Each year new strips of old cloth replace the old ones and the "house of hair" is handed down from father to son without it being completely old or new at any one time.

   733. As the tent-dweller's family grows larger or he becomes richer, he adds on another section to his old tent. Isaiah had this process in mind when he compared the prophetic prosperity of Israel to a Bedouin tent.


                                                     Enlarge the place of your tent,
                                                        stretch your tent curtains wide,
                                                        do not hold back;
                                                     lengthen your cords,
                                                        strengthen your stakes.
                    
                                                                                         Isaiah 54:2
                                                       

Clothing and Accessories lll

   722. Jewish men did not wear jewelry as a rule. They often carried a cane or staff with some ornamentation at the top. Certain men wore a ring on their right hand, or on a chain around their neck. This was the signet ring or seal and served as the personal signature of its owner.

   723. Jewish women did use ornaments, such as in elaborate braiding of their hair (which Peter and Paul spoke against in 1 Peter and 1 Timothy). Earrings were worn by women of Jacob's family (Gen. 35:4), and the gold earrings of the Israelite women contributed to the gold in Aaron's golden calf (Exod. 32:2). Abraham's servant had two bracelets ready to give Rebekah, and in the third chapter of his prophecy, Isaiah lists many feminine ornaments (Isa. 3:18-20).

   724. Each society has its own standards of physical beauty. It is difficult to know just what the ancient Hebrews found beautiful. Most of the attractive women mentioned in the Bible are not described in detail. The writer usually notes simply that a woman was "beautiful." Some of the most important women in the Old Testament were said to be beauties: Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Bathsheba, Tamar, Abishag, and Esther.

   725. What did Jesus wear? He must have worn the turban, worn by both the rich and poor alike. Under His turban His hair would be rather long and His beard uncut. His tunic, the undergarment, was one piece without a seam. It was therefore of some value and had probably been given to Him by one of the wealthier women who ministered to Him. Over this He wore the mantle, loose and flowing. This cloak probably was not white, because we're told it turned white during the transfiguration. It was most likely a common blue or it may have been white with brown stripes. Jesus did have at the four corners of this mantle the tsitsith (fringe).

   726. In Old Testament times practically all clothing was made from sheep's wool. We are accustomed to seeing sheep that have been bred for their white wool, but in Biblical times most sheep had brown coats or were black and white.

   727. The hair clipped from goats was woven into course cloth to make the black tents in which the nomads lived. The size of the tent depended on the wealth of the owner, but even the simplest tent was divided by curtains into a front room for entertaining and another room for cooking and housing the children.

  

  

  

  

  

Clothing and Accessories ll

   715. Baldness was scarce, and suspicion of leprosy was often attached to the condition. When the youth said to Elisha, "Go on up, you baldhead!" (2 Kings 2:23), he was using an extreme curse.

   716. Baldness disqualified a man from the priesthood, as is demonstrated by Leviticus 21:5. Priests were not allowed to shave their heads or rip their clothes, or even to mourn a mother's or father's death (Lev. 21:10-11).

   717. Men allowed their beards to grow long and rarely if ever cut them.

   718. Jews always wore a turban in public. At certain seasons of the year it is dangerous to expose the head to the rays of the sun. This turban was made of thick material that was wound several times around the head. Both Job and the prophet Isaiah mention the use of the turban as a headdress (Job 29:14).

   719. Wearing what is appropriate. The Law of Moses forbade men to wear women's clothing or women to wear men's clothing (Deut. 22:5).

   720. The dress of women was different in detail from men's clothing rather than in style. They too wore a tunic and cloak, but in every case their dress was a little more elaborate. The veil was the distinctive female apparel. All females, with the exception of maidservants, women of low status, and prostitutes, wore a veil.

   721. The headgear of Bethlehem women shed light on Biblical customs. The headgear included a high cap on the front of which might have been sewn rows of gold and silver coins. There was also a veil, perhaps six feet long and four feet wide that covered the cap but left the coins showing. Some had embroidery work and some were nearly covered with needlework.

Clothing and Accessories l

   708. The manner of dress in the Eastern countries is largely the same as it was centuries ago. There is a prevalent view in the Bible lands that it is morally wrong to change anything that is ancient.

   709. The inner garment. The tunic was a shirt worn next to the skin. It was made of leather, haircloth, wool, linen, or in modern times, usually cotton. The simplest style was without sleeves and reached to the knees or ankles. The well-to-do wore it with sleeves and it extended to the ankles. Both men and women wore this garment, although there was no doubt a difference in style and pattern in what was worn. The garment of Jesus for which the Roman soldiers cast lots was a tunic without seams.

   710. The garment Jacob gave to Joseph (Gen. 37:3), translated in the Septuagint and Vulgate Bible as the "coat of many colors," is the same expression used for the garment worn by Tamar, the daughter of King David. It is translated in Greek and Latin as "a sleeved tunic" (2 Sam. 13:18). For this reason, many Bible scholars believe it was a long undergarment with sleeves. The working classes usually wore a short tunic, whereas the aristocracy wore a long tunic with sleeves.

   711. The girdle. If the tunic was ungirded (or untied) it would interfere with a person's ability to walk freely, and so a girdle was always worn when leaving home (2 Kings 4:29; Acts 12:8). There were and still are two types. A common variety is made of leather, usually six inches wide, with clasps. This was the kind worn by Elijah (2 Kings 1:8), and by John the Baptist (Matt. 3:4). The other, a more valuable type, is made of linen or sometimes silk or embroidered material. The girdle served as a pouch to carry money and other things, as well as to fasten a man's sword to his body.

   712. The outer garment or "mantle." The outer garment that a Palestinian villager wears is a large cloak that serves as an overcoat. It is made of wool or goat's hair and serves as a shelter from the wind and rain, as well as a blanket at night. It was this outer garment or mantle with which Elijah smote the waters of the Jordan and crossed over. When Elijah was taken up to Heaven this mantle was thrown down to Elisha (2 Kings 2:8-13).

   713. Because the outer garment was a man's covering by night, the law did not allow anybody to take this as pledge or security on a loan because it would deprive him of his means of keeping warm while sleeping. When a garment was taken, it had to be returned by sunset (Exod. 22:26-27).

   714. Hair. The Jews of the Bible gave much attention to the care of their hair. The young people loved to wear it long and curled (Song of Sol. 5:11), and they were proud to have thick hair (2 Sam. 14:25-26). Middle-aged men and priests would occasionally cut their hair, but not often.



  

  

  

  

Manners and Customs

   707. Knowing the Manners and Customs of the East (those living in countries east of Europe) is necessary for a thorough understanding of the Bible. Westerners can easily misunderstand the motives and meanings of why our ancient Israelite forefathers and mothers did and said what they did in the Scriptures.

Bearing Children lll

   703. Many cultures in the world today practice circumcision for hygienic reasons. Some primitive tribes perform the operation on infants and young boys, while others wait until the boys reach puberty or are ready for marriage. These traditions have remained unchanged for centuries. For the Israelites, circumcision signified that the infant was being taken into the covenant community. This ritual remains a hallmark of Judaism today. Flint knives were used until New Testament times when they were finally replaced by metal. Jewish boys are circumcised on the eighth day.

   704. Recent studies have confirmed that the safest time to perform circumcision is on the eighth day of life. Vitamin K, which causes blood to coagulate, is not produced in sufficient amounts until the fifth to seventh day. On the eighth day the body contains 10 percent more prothrombin than normal; prothrombin is also important in the clotting of blood. 

   705. Since all firstborns are God's possession, it was necessary for the Israelite family to redeem, or buy back, the firstborn infant from God. The redemption price was five shekels of silver, given to the priests when the child was one month old-possibly an amount of time to be certain the child would live (Num.18:15-16). Scripture doesn't tell us about the redemption ceremony itself.

   706. By rabbinic times the redemption ceremony took place in the child's home with a priest and other guests present. The rite began when the father presented the child to the priest. The priest would then ask the father, "Do you wish to redeem the child or do you want to leave him with me?" The father answered that he would redeem the child and handed the priest five silver coins. The priest would than declare, "Your son is redeemed!" After the priest pronounced a blessing on the child, he joined the invited guests at a banquet table.

  

Bearing Children ll

   699. Another ancient custom that continues in the East is the care of an infant child. Instead of allowing the baby the free use of it's arms and legs, it is bound hand and foot by swaddling bands, quite like a mummy. At birth the child is washed and rubbed with salt, and with it's legs together and it's arms at it's side, it is wound around tightly with linen or cotton strips, four to five inches wide and five or six yards long. The band is also placed under the chin and over the forehead. Not only does the Bible describe the baby Jesus as swaddled, but Ezekiel also mentions the custom of swaddling (Ezek. 16:4).

   700. It was considered a privilege and a duty for the Jewish mother to breastfeed her infant. But sometimes a mother was not physically able to do so. For these women, a wet nurse was secured. This wet nurse (usually unrelated to the baby) fed the baby her own breast milk. When pharaoh's daughter found Moses floating among the reeds of the Nile, one of her first orders was to get a Hebrew woman who could nurse him.

   701. The weaning of a child is an important event in the domestic life of the East. In many places it is celebrated by a festive gathering of friends, by feasting, religious ceremonies, and sometimes the formal presentation of rice to a child. Hebrew babies are often nursed for two years and sometimes for four or five. It was probably after age three that Hannah weaned Samuel and brought him to be presented to the Lord, A scriptural example of the weaning feast is found in Gen. 21:8, when Isaac was weaned and dedicated to the Lord.

   702. Names were very important in the world of the Old Testament. Hebrew names usually carried meaning about the person's character, praise to God, or the location or circumstances surrounding the child's birth. Jewish people believed that they must first know a person's name before they could know the person. The name Jesus is a Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua, which means "salvation of Yahweh." The name was given by one or both parents. Scripture indicates that the mother usually named the infant.

  

Bearing Children l

   694. Levirate marriage. The Israelites believed that it was very important for a man to have an heir. To preserve the property inheritance that God had given them, they had to convey it through family lines (Exod. 15:17-18). If a woman's husband died before she had borne an heir, the practice of levirate marriage (which was part of the Law of Moses) began. According to the law, when a woman was widowed, her dead husband's brother would marry her and the children of this marriage became heirs to the deceased brother. If a man refused to marry his widowed sister-in-law, he was publicly disgraced (Deut. 25: 7-10).

   695. Many Israelite couples were unable to bear children. Today we know that couples may be childless due to either the husband's or wife's sterility, but in Bible times only the wife was blamed for the problem. Barrenness was more than a physical or social problem. Deep religious meanings were attached to the problem as well. Moses promised the people that if they obeyed the Lord, blessing would follow: "Thou shalt be blessed above all people: there shall not be male or female barren among you, or among your cattle" (Deut. 7:14 KJV). So barrenness was believed to be a result of disobeying God.

   696. A barren couple spent a good deal of time examining their past failures to see if any sin had been unconfessed. Childlessness became the main theme of the couple's prayers. Isaac begged the Lord to let his wife bear a child (Gen. 25:21). Hannah sobbed before the Lord and promised that if God would give her a son, she would dedicate him to the Lord's service (1 Sam. 1:11). When sin was ruled out as the cause of the problem, the wife would then inquire about different kinds of remedies.

   697. Modern excavations in Israel produced many clay fertility figures. These were supposed to help a woman get pregnant by "sympathetic magic." Each figurine was molded to look like a pregnant woman. As the barren woman handled it and kept it near her, she hoped to take on the likeness of the pregnant figure. Women also wore amulets, an ornament or gem worn against the body, to insure fertility.

   698. Adoption practices were common in ancient times. Adoption solved many problems. The adopted son would care for the couple in their old age, provide them a proper burial. and inherit the family property. However, if the couple had a natural son after one had been adopted, he would become the rightful heir. After Bilhah's baby was born, it was placed in Rachel's lap. This act was a central part of the adoption ceremony. Other Biblical adoptions include Moses adopted by pharaoh's daughter and Esther adopted by Mordecai.

  

  

Family Life: The Husband and Wife ll

   688. Several cities mentioned in the Old Testament were built above underground springs. Megiddo and Hazor were two of these cities. In Hazor a woman would walk through the streets to a deep shaft. Then she descended thirty feet on five flights of stairs to the water tunnel, along which she proceeded to the water level to fill her large water jug. She needed considerable strength to climb back out of the watershaft with a heavy water jug. Gathering water was also time for the women to socialize.

   689. The hum of the handmill grinding grain would be one of the first sounds heard in the early morning of an Israelite village. For those who live in the Holy Lands, this sound is associated with home, comfort, and plenty. This task belonged to the women and began in the early morning because it would often take half the day to finish. When Jeremiah foretold judgment upon Israel for her sins, he said that God would "banish from them the sounds of joy and gladness, the voices of bride and bridegroom, the sound of millstones and the light of the lamp" (Jer. 25:10, emphasis added).

   690. Making clothes for the family from the wool of their flocks was one of the responsibilities of Jewish women. Another task was the washing of clothing. The ancient women of Israel washed their clothes by going to nearby sources of water such as streams, pools, or watering troughs. Like Arab women, they dipped the clothes in and out of the water and then placed them on flat stones to beat them with a club. They carried the water in goatskins and had a vessel for rinsing.

   691. Collecting water from a well or spring is another household task of the women. The same practice is used today in many places in the East just as it was done in Genesis: "it was toward evening, the time the women go out to draw water" (24:11). It is customary for Syrian women to carry the pitcher of water on their shoulders, although sometimes it is carried on their hip. Most Arabs of Palestine carry it on their heads. Scripture says that Rebekah carried her pitcher on her shoulder (Gen. 24:15).

   692. "A man carrying a jug of water..." Carrying water was universally done by women. So when Jesus instructed two of His disciples, "Go into the city, and a man carrying a jar of water will meet you. Follow him" (Mark 14:13), it was an easy way of identifying the man. However, when larger supplies of water were needed, men used large skins of sheep or goats for carrying it.

   693. The hard leather portable bucket with a rope is brought to the well in addition to the pitcher in order to let down the bucket to the level of the water. The Samaritan woman who Jesus met at Jacob's well had brought all this with her, but Jesus did not have anything with Him. This is why she said to Him, "Sir, you have no bucket, and the well is deep" (John 4:11 NRSV).